Approaches used in the essays of this work
- Introduction
In order to make the stories of the Bible, as well as the teachings associated with the Bible, more relevant to a modern audience, the essays in this work will, broadly, analyze the stories and teachings based on those stories in the following manner. The analysis is carried out by connecting each of one or more points of inquiry to a conclusion using a reasoning process that will be plausible and understandable to a lay audience having a 21st Century background while remaining within the constraints of the themes and teachings of the Bible. The points of inquiry are chosen by what might puzzle a modern audience based on what is said in a sermon, or a seminar or study group in their synagogue. Hence, the title of the work: Musings from In Front of the Pulpit with the subtitle Speculations by a modern congregant on teachings from the pulpit and Jewish Literature. If the particular inquiry had not occurred to the audience, it is hoped that it will prove interesting to the audience after it is posed in the essay. At any rate, it is hoped that the interpretations presented in these essays will open and widen the text of the Bible so a reader will widen his or her own perspective of not only the Bible, but of its meaning. The Bible is a living text and can be interpreted and understood by any generation, and each new generation can enrich the understanding of the Bible by its own interpretation. It is hoped that this work encourages that process.
Literary-theological reading[1]
The stories in the Bible will be analyzed in the same manner one would analyze short stories in a collection of short stories. Some of the stories will fit with other stories, some will stand alone but all will come within the scope or purview of one or more overarching themes of the collection.
Literary-theological reading of the Torah balances intellectual readings which account for history, archaeology, geography and linguistic theory, with a pious reading. The text is read and interpreted with an eye on both the theological, pious, nature (which dictates that the Bible is teaching – or actually is – the word of God) and the intellectual or academic analysis used for secular texts.
As above discussed, there are several ways of reading the Bible: that all stories are absolutely true; or none of the stories are true. As also discussed above, the essays in this work will adopt a middle position. Further complicating the analysis of the Bible and its stories is the dichotomy that exists between secular Biblical scholarship and strictly spiritual Biblical scholarship.
Secular Biblical scholarship is found in historical scholarship which assumes that history unfolds according to natural processes and all literature is generated by human authors operating within specific historical contexts which influence the text. Historical scholarship seeks to understand the Bible according to the intent of the text. When problems such as contradictions, gaps, and repetitions occur in the biblical text, the scholar explains them as being the result of errors, multiple sources, competing agendas, and so forth.
By contrast, spiritual scholarship, as represented by Orthodox Judaism, seeks to understand the Bible as a guide to life. The Bible’s contradictions, repetitions, and gaps show that it is not a straightforward text, but rather a hieroglyphic work consisting of multiple levels of meaning that must be deciphered in order to understand how it teaches one to live one’s life.
The present work seeks to rationalize all of these approaches. This middle position manifests itself in the framing of the overarching questions attributed to the text by the essays in this work. Thus, the essays will examine and analyze the stories in the Bible assuming they were written by human authors operating within specific historical contexts which influence the text. However, this approach is modified to assume the intent of the authors was to provide the answer to the basic questions: “how did I arrive at this particular time and place?” And then to layer onto this the belief of those living in Biblical Times that things they could not explain were controlled by a higher power, God. Thus, the combination of approaches yields the following framework: the authors of the bible were humans and they were influenced by the times they lived in and they sought to teach people how to live their lives by answering the basic questions these people had in the manner these people would understand: “how did I arrive at this particular time and place with the help of God and how do I live my life in order to remain in partners with God?”
The short story analysis approach used in these essays differs slightly from the literary-theological approach. The approach used in the essays of this work considers piety, but does not place as much emphasis on it that the literary-theological reading does. The approach used in this work considers the stories in the Bible as being intended to lead and teach by example rather than by fiat which assumes that the teaching is that of God or attributable to God. The stories are analyzed as short stories that individually and collectively teach the answers to the fundamental questions which are asked by the audience (“how did I arrive at this particular time, station, and place?” What do I have to do to be happy and to maintain any success I have achieved?” to what do I owe this success?” “Why?”[2]) by example rather than by fiat.
A person need not be religious to appreciate the analysis in this work, just sufficiently literate to read and analyze a short story that is placed in a compendium of short stories, all of which are included in an overall work that has one or more overarching themes[3].
Tools Used in the Analyses
More specifically, the analysis will utilize several tools as necessary. The choice of tool will depend on the story being investigated. These tools will include: (1) a lens of modern scientific knowledge; (2) a lens of modern ethos and attitudes, especially as applied to religious topics; (3) a lens which accounts for modern history[4], especially the Holocaust; (4) a lens of human behavior[5]; (5) a lens of accepting that the story was fabricated by the author either out of whole cloth or based on a legend that would be known to the Biblical audience or based on other evidence which would be known to the Biblical audience in order to make a point or present a teaching[6]; and (6) re-visiting an aspect of the Bible that is related to modern civilization, such as applying the teaching of the prophets to the needs of modern civilization.
- Some examples of the tools used in the approach
- The Characters in the Bible Stories are Human Beings
Human nature has not changed from Biblical Days even though human knowledge and experience has matured and increased. The Bible uses human beings in its stories. These stories were written during Biblical times, by Biblical authors and for a Biblical audience. As such, the characters in the Bible stories acted accordingly. While human nature may not have changed from Biblical times, the way it is related and understood certainly has changed for a modern audience. The brevity of many Biblical stories might be used to bridge this gap. While this approach has been attempted in the past, for example Midrash[7] often fills in the blanks left in Bible stories by telling stories of what humans might be doing, this approach has proved inadequate and often unrealistic to a modern audience. This approach often visualizes fantastic attributes for people and events which are quite foreign to a modern audience. As such, many Midrashic stories are often dismissed, often out of hand, by modern audiences. If the Bible is to remain relevant and moving for today’s audience, a new approach might be necessary. The essays in this collection attempt to adopt a new approach by trying to view the Bible stories through the eyes of humans in a modern audience.
One step in this process is effected in the essays in this collection is by trying to humanize the Bible stories by analyzing them from the viewpoint of events which happened to real human beings who have similar, and perhaps the same, human reactions and motivations as we do today. The stories are analyzed and presented so the audience can put themselves in the place of the character of the story and thus learn from the events of the stories as they happened to real human beings. By placing real humans in the stories, a modern audience can readily place themselves in the situation, and the stories should be even more meaningful, especially to a modern reader.
As stated by Nahum Sarna at page 199 of his book, Understanding Genesis (Schocken Books, New York, 1966):
one of the unique features of the patriarchal narratives is that the fathers were not, as among other peoples, mythological personages, super-human heroes or idealized saints. They are vividly portrayed as human beings, vitally involved in the struggle for existence, subject to temptation like all other men and like them, too, possessed of human frailties and strength of character, and experiencing the joys and sorrows of life.
Real human beings, both Biblical and modern, are skeptical, cynical, greedy, self-aggrandizing, ignorant, irrational, mean, and insightful, they have common sense, they love, they hate, they lust, they plot, they are ambitious, they plan, they scheme, they protect themselves and their loved ones, and they can, and do, change. The characters of the Bible exercise their free will subject to their own needs, fears, desires, personal outlook, upbringing, heredity and character, one minute they are a hero and the next they are a villain, one minute a saint, and the next a sinner, they are inclined to both good and evil – just like us.
In fact, their humanity is often what makes some of the Biblical characters so great and so admirable, and so complex. Human beings just do not agree to do the things the patriarchs did. Can the reader imagine himself agreeing to leave home for an unnamed location based on a vague promise of being the father of a nation from an entity not previously known? Abram[8] did. On the other hand, could the audience visualize themselves as passing their wife off as their sister and subjecting her to the possibility of life in a harem in order to save himself? Abram did Or deceiving a potential ally – Abraham did at Gerar. Can the reader imagine himself agreeing to lead a rebellion against the most powerful nation in the world based solely on instructions emanating from a bush? Moses did. Can the reader imagine himself submitting to being a human sacrifice because his father said his god told him to do this? Isaac did. In fact, can the reader imagine himself sacrificing (murdering) her only son simply because an entity that calls itself God told him to? Especially since that same Entity had previously promised (numerous times) that her progeny would be as multitudinous as the stars in the sky and this son was the only true progeny. Abraham[9] did. Could the reader visualize herself in a situation where her husband took her only son to be sacrificed because her husband said his god told him to? Sarah did. On the other hand, can the reader visualize herself banishing her adopted son into the dessert and almost certain death due to starvation and thirst in order to protect the inheritance of her natural son? Sarah did. Still further, can the audience visualize themselves stealing their father’s death-bed blessing from their brother? Jacob did. Can the audience visualize themselves working for seven years to earn the right to marry the woman they loved only to have her older sister substituted for her, and then agreeing to work for another seven years for this woman? Jacob did.
This is one of the things that made the Patriarchs and Matriarchs great and admirable: they were humans who did things that were so extraordinary that we simply cannot grasp them and certainly cannot see ourselves doing the same – all based on faith. The ancestors in the Bible often were not held up to be role models for the audience to emulate but as examples in a lesson. Also, some of the stories may not even be about an individual even though an individual is named, the story may actually be about the nation of Israel with the protagonist being an individual who represents the nation of Israel (for example, does the conflict among the sons of Jacob represent the conflict between the Northern and Southern Kingdoms or does the story of David and Goliath represent the small nation of Israel defeating the larger and more powerful countries who are enemies of Israel?), or how a present situation developed (for example, Judah was not the first born to Jacob but he became the most powerful because the actions of his elder brothers disqualified them so that the Nation of Judah would have support in the Bible for being the most powerful rather than a Nation of Reuben, Simeon or Levi, also, David is a descendent of Judah). Sometimes, the character of a story may even have some evil motive among many other motives (all real people often have multiple motives which cause them to adopt and change directions multiple times within the same event). Sometimes, the morality and motivations are ambiguous and murky to us and perhaps even to the character himself….just like in real life. Actions often must account for multiple and competing estimates of consequences. This is also reflected in the stories and in the interpretations of them. If we understand that the characters of the stories of the Bible are human beings just like us, many of the stories in the Bible become more palatable to the modern reader.
By visualizing ourselves in the situation being related in a Bible story. We can exercise our imaginations and place ourselves in the stories and try to envision how we might react in the situation. Or it allows us to learn from the mistakes of others and then exercise our imaginations so we do not make the same mistakes and thus learn from the mistakes of others[10]. This is how progress is made: mistake, learning from that mistake and using imagination so the mistake is not repeated in later situations. That is why we have imaginations.
Some of the concepts proposed in the Bible regarding relationships among humans, as well as between humans and the other entities which inhabit the earth as well as between humans and the earth itself, need to be reexamined in light of modern global attitudes and environmental attitudes which were not existent for the Biblical audience. Many of the essays in this collection perform this reexamination and try to update these concepts and teachings for today’s audience. A prime example of this is the essay God’s Ground Rules where certain rules are proposed which make sense in a modern, global, world but which may not have been intriguing to a Biblical audience, or may not even have occurred to the members of that audience.
- Many of the Bible Stories have Multiple Meanings
The Bible is masterful at packing layers upon layers of meaning into a short story. Some stores are only a few lines long, yet are presented in a manner that is short, but which illustrates, not only an overarching theme but can be read as supporting many concepts which support or are related to the themes of the Bible. The Flood story is one example of this. Even the lengthier stories, such as the story of Job, follow this approach and can be read on many, many levels and can be applied to many, many lessons and teachings. Where appropriate, the essays in this work will unpack a story and view it from many levels with multiple lessons being highlighted. The story of Job is an example of this, as this story can be viewed as showing the relationship of God to man, the relationship of man to God, the relationship of men to men, our view of God, even the very nature of God, and much more, all through the lens of the suffering of an innocent.
III. The Stories of The Bible
Lest we forget, the Bible stories are still just that: stories. Not only do these stories instruct us, they entertain us. These stories have captivated the imagination of people for thousands of years. The Bible stories may be the very first stories of Horatio Alger (who may have his roots in the Joseph story), of heroes (even Luke Skywalker may have his roots in the Bible stories of heroes), of supermen (many judges were quiet, unassuming people who performed great deeds), spy stories (stories of coups and rebellions may find their roots in Bible stories), on-the-road stories (where people bond while traveling on a road), palace intrigue (many operas as well as many popular television shows may have roots in stories such as David and Bathsheba), even science fiction (such as Star Trek: The Next Generation), and many, many more. Accordingly, some of the essays in this book will treat the stories as just stories which are entertaining as well as instructive.
As discussed in the posting regarding the Bible and the Modern Audience, the stories and characters (and even the authors) of the Bible are many and varied and each has his or her own motivations, character, and personal history. As such, these stories will be analyzed in this blog from many different viewpoints: character personal; historical; historical within the context of the time of authorship; through the lens of the authors; fictional; a combination of these; and even humorous and full of intrigue. All stories will be analyzed through the lenses of the overarching questions being approached in these stories, and which are still relevant to today’s audience: where did we come from? who are we? how did we arrive at this particular time, place and circumstance? is there a higher power that looks out for us? if so, what do we have to do to keep this power looking out for us? how was the universe created? does the universe have meaning? do we have any meaning? what is our place in the universe? why do bad things happen to good people (and vice versa)? how do we live with each other and within our society and in our world? Thus, each story will be read and analyzed on its own merits, and possibly from a variety of approaches. The stories of the Bible are many and varied, and sometimes even inconsistent with each other and even inconsistent within themselves. As such, the analyses in this blog may reflect such variety, and even inconsistency.
[1] See, Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah, edited by Shalom Carmy published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, (Lanham, 2005), “A Room with a View, but a Room of our Own” pp 1-38.
[2] This view is often described in terms of a duality of material: narrative (who are we and where did we come from?) and legislative (how do we continue to live if we are who we say we are?). The authorship of the Pentateuch is divided between these approaches with the E and J authors being narrative authors and the D and P authors being legislative authors. The authors are further divided by geography, with the E and D authors being northern authors and the J and P authors being southern authors. As discussed elsewhere, the type and location of an author will influence his view and approach to the work (see, e.g., Deuteronomy 5:6-21 which is the Northern version of the Ten Commandments as opposed to the version provided in the Book of Exodus).
[3] The short story, like any work of art, is often best understood when it is considered within the context of the times it was written. This allows the audience to better understand the motivations of the art’s creator. However, considering the stories of the Bible in the context of the ethos, conditions and events of the Ancient Near East opens up an entirely new and broader study and thus is beyond the scope of this work. Ultimately, it may be futile to perform such a literary-historical analysis anyway since there will always be a difference of opinion regarding what practice, etc. was actually in existence at the time. Further complicating the matter is the fact that the Bible as we have it today may have been written, re-written and redacted several times at different times thus possibly introducing practices and thoughts prevalent at those later times. Thus, such a complicating factor will not be brought into the analysis of the stories in this work.
[4] This could be seen as a variation of the historical critical approach which acknowledges the historically conditioned character of all products of human culture, including the Hebrew Scriptures, and thus reads the bible and analyzes the stories critically as documents reflecting a particular time and specific culture.
[5] See, also, The Tribes of Yahweh, A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel 1250-1050 B.C.E. by Norman Gottwald, Fortress Press, 1985, in which sociological methods are used to reconstruct the history of the Conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes.
[6] For example, stories such the flood story, the Tower of Babel story, many of the stories associated with the Patriarchs, even the Exodus story itself, may be made up our of whole cloth or well-known stories and legends amended, expanded and flat-out changed, to tailor the story to a particular lesson or theme being espoused by the Bible, or to fill in gaps in the theocentric history being related by the Bible. In fact, the character David may even be a fabrication as there is virtually no archeological evidence (with the sole exception at the time these essays are being written being the Tel Dan Stole) indicating the existence of King of Israel known as David so that the David stories in the Bible become close to the stories of King Arthur. But see The Interrupted Search for King David’s Palace,’ by Biblical Archaeology Society Staff • 07/21/2016 based on research done by Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar .
[7] Midrash elaborates on a text with the intent to discover deeper meanings or new questions behind the text. The term “Midrash” derives from the biblical (Hebrew) term lidrosh – to search or to seek, to examine or to investigate, and embodies one of Judaism’s most vibrant modes of wisdom, wondering and creativity. Midrash is meant to make a point, to stretch one’s thinking and should not be taken literally or as historical fact. Nobody can say for sure where Midrash began, but it has some commonality with stories by Greek philosophers such as Plato, but there may have been much crossbreeding with Greek stories being based on Jewish stories and vice versa..
[8] Until Gen 17:5, the man is referred to as Abram, in Gen 17:5, God changed his name to Abraham ”And you shall no longer be called Abram, but your name shall be Abraham…” This convention will be carried out in the essays in this work: in events occurring prior to Gen 17:5, the name Abram will be used, and in events occurring after Gen 17:5, the name Abraham will be used. The same convention will be used for the woman Sarah, God changed her name from Sarai to Sarah in Gen 17:15 “As for your wife, Sarai, you shall not call her Sarai, but her name shall be Sarah.” Hence, in events occurring prior to Gen 17:15, the woman will be referred to as Sarai, and in events occurring after Gen 17:15, the woman will be referred to as Sarah. It might be worthwhile to discuss name changes and their significance in the Bible. The meaning given to Abraham in Genesis is borne out by the Arabic raham meaning “multitude”. The divine name Ram also occurs in Adoniram, Jehoram and Malchi-ram; and its plural is used to describe heavenly beings. Changes of names at the coronation ceremony or the assumption of an important office were common in Israel; thus Hosea became Jehoshua (Numbers), Gideon became Jerubbaal (Judges), Jedidah became Solomon (2 Samuel) Eliakim became Jehoiakim (2 Kings), Mattaniah became Zedekiah (2 Kings) Jacob’s adoption of thtitle “Israel” in Genesis is a further example. Sarai is another, older form of Sarah, both deriving from an ancient Semitic noun meaning “queen” or “princess.” A goddess named Sharit or Sharayat (the phonetic equivalent of Sarai) was worshppped at Bozrah in the Hauran.
[9] As a matter of interest to a modern reader, Abraham has appeared in literature many times. A couple of examples are: Thomas Hardy in Tess of the D’Ubervilles where Hardy compares the love of Mr. Clare for his son Angel to the love of Abraham for Isaac; The nomadic life of Abraham and his large clan forms the basis of Faulkner’s character Flem Snopes (Sartoris) and an early title of Faulkner’s novel The Hamlet was Father Abraham and Walter Scott used the story of Abraham suppressing the fact that Sarai was his wife as basis of the Countess of Leicester in Kenilworth; and so on.
[10] Some say that without sin or transgression or mistakes, many of the books of the Bible would never even have been written. For example, the books of the prophets are nearly entirely concerned with such issues.